Building citizens: Why philosophy is compulsory in French schools

On Monday, the first exams of the 2026 Bac began with the philosophy paper. This year’s questions include; Do we have control over what we say? Can we be happy when others are not?

In many countries, philosophy is an optional course in secondary school, if it is even offered to begin with.

But in France, philosophy is compulsory for all lycée (high school) students – including those at technical schools – who must take the course for at least one year. 

When they take the notorious baccalauréat, or just bac for short, exam at the end of their school career, philosophy is one of the exams they must sit.

Regardless of whether the student plans to apply to university or not, they must take the bac de philo – the philosophy exam – where they spend several hours responding to questions like “Are we responsible for the future?” or “Does work divide men?”

Philosophy in schools

The first lycées were created in France in 1802 and 1803, under the rule of Napoleon, and at the time they were male only and not open to all groups. But it was in these schools where the study of philosophy courses was standardised, a few years after their creation in 1808.

In the same year, the end of studies examination – the baccalauréat – was introduced.

READ MORE: French word of the day: Le bac

Simon Perrier, the former head of the Association for public school philosophy teachers, told Slate in a 2010 article titled Why France philophises that in the 19th century, “the ambition was for philosophy, in the final year of school, to be the culmination, the closure, the unification of knowledge”. 

Eventually, France would make primary school education free and public in 1881, and later, in 1933, that was extended to secondary education. 

But in the meantime, the study of philosophy increased in symbolic importance for the French state – largely spearheaded by philosopher and educator Victor Cousin who pushed for its instruction – and now it is seen as crucial for building an educated and enlightened citizenry with critical thinking skills. 

In September 1922, a bulletin, which continues to be quoted to this day, was sent out to French teachers on the topic of philosophy and its teaching. 

It defined philosophy as “learning freedom through the exercise of reflection” and that it is the “meaning and purpose of public instruction, which is designed to prepare ‘enlightened’ citizens”. 

So why the emphasis on philosophy?

Likely due to generations of children studying it, philosophy takes on a big role in French life.

It’s far from unusual to hear a politician quote a philosopher, such as when French president Emmanuel Macron concluded an open letter to the UK’s Financial Times newspaper on the topic of Islamist Separatism by quoting the 12th century philosopher Averroes who wrote “Ignorance leads to fear, fear leads to hatred, and hatred leads to violence”.

From 1953-1968, the French television show called Lectures pour Tous aired during prime time on Channel 1 each Wednesday evening, broadcasting the works of important philosophers like Sartre, Camus, and Bachelard.

Today, cafés philos – or philosophy discussion groups held in cafés – continue to attract members, and according to France Télévisions 2022 list of France’s 50 favourite books, Albert Camus’ ‘The Stranger’ is still popular, coming in 12th place. It wad adapted as a big-budget film in 2025.

Philosophers in France played a big role in creating the republic, and perhaps for this reason their legacy endures.

Sudhir Hazareesingh, a professor in politics and a tutorial fellow in politics at Balliol College at the University of Oxford, wrote that in the mid-18th century, France was home to a “remarkable group of thinkers, the philosophes” who represented the French version of rationalism that would go on to challenge the ancien régime and “give a particularly radical edge to the French Revolution”.

Their viewpoints were anti-clerical and egalitarian, and they expressed them in salons, private meetings where people debated, discussed and circulated philosophical and artistic ideas. After the French revolution and the fall of the First Republic, the import of philosophy did not die.

So what do French schoolchildren actually learn?

France’s ministry of education describes one of its missions as to “embody, bring to life and pass on to students the principles and values of the Republic”.

Meanwhile, Éducation Nationale writes on their website that “without education, the values of the Republic cannot be transmitted”. 

READ MORE: EXPLAINED: What does laïcité (secularism) really mean in France?

And for many, philosophy is the foundation to being able to prepare future citizens of the Republic.

Delphine Antoine-Mahut, a professor of the history of modern philosophy at ENS Lyon, told France Radio in defence of the bac de philo, that the subject is important for “taking on an active role in the life of a city, becoming involved as a citizen, and guarding against various forms of sophistry, fanaticism, exclusivity and conspiracy”.

Perrier told France 24 that one key difference between France and other nations is the way philosophy is instructed.

“In most other countries, philosophy is taught as a chronological and historical examination of philosophies”, he said.

In contrast, in France, students learn about concepts such as freedom, reason, and morality, as teachers push students to think critically, deconstructing different theories through essay writing and analysing each point and counterpoint.

Nicolas Franck, a philosophy teacher at Lycée la Folie Saint James told 20 Minutes that teaching philosophy is important simply because it teaches you how to think.

“We believe that we know how to think naturally, but in fact, it’s like walking, swimming or any other activity, you have to learn,” he told 20 Minutes. 

“Philosophy not only opens up the mind, it also leads to genuine intellectual emancipation. It’s about being able to structure things, to have a form of autonomy, not to owe your opinions to others, but to know why you adhere to a particular idea.

“By developing critical thinking skills, future voters can do their real work as citizens, which is not simply adhering to ideas and values but knowing why to believe in them”, Franck said.